The percentage of various size of particles in a dry soil sample is determined by particle size analysis or mechanical analysis. The mechanical analysis is carried out in two stages:
Sieve analysis
Sedimentation analysis or wet mechanical analysis
The sieve analysis is carried out for coarse-grained soil only, While sedimentation analysis is carried out for fine-grained soils.
Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of stander sieves are designated by the size of the mesh in mm. Sieving is performed by arranging the various sieves one over the other in the order of their mesh openings.
The largest opening sieve is kept the top and the smallest opening sieve is kept the bottom. A receiver is kept at the bottom and a cover is kept at the top of the whole assembly.
The soil sample is put on the top sieve. Then shaking is given to the whole assembly for at least 10 minutes with the help of a shaking machine or by hand.
The portion of the soil sample retained on each sieve is weighed. The percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated. From these results, percentage passing through each sieve is calculated.
The results may be plotted on a semi-log graph paper with the percentage finer on the arithmetic scale and particle diameter on the log scale. A smooth curve can be drawn through them. This curve can indicate the type of soil.
Sedimentation analysis or wet mechanical analysis
Wet mechanical analysis is used for the analysis of soil finer than 75 microns in size. The analysis is based on Stoke’s law. The sedimentation analysis can be done either by a hydrometer or by a pipette. Both methods are based on the following assumption:
a) The particles are the perfect sphere.
b) The liquid through which the particles fall must be of indefinite extent.
c) The particle reaches constant terminal velocity within a few seconds and is maintained indefinitely.
The door is a framework of timber, steel, glass or a combination of these materials. It serves as a connecting link between various parts of a building. It provides access to the users of the unit.
The window is a framework of timber, steel, glass or a combination of these materials. It provides light and ventilation inside the building.
Size of doors and window
The height of the door is approximately equal to the width of the door plus 1.2 m. In India, a door height of 2 m is considered most suitable. The minimum height of the door is 1.8 m.
The width of the door is approximately equal to 0.4 to 0.6 times of the height of thedoor. The width of the door generally varies from 0.8 m to 1.2 m. The maximum width of the door is generally 3 m.
The height of the window is generally kept at 1.1 m to 1.2 m. The width of the window is generally maintained at 0.9 m to 2 m.
Technical terms used in connection with doors and windows
The following 16 technical terms used are described below
1) Frame
A door frame consists of two vertical members called jambs and a horizontal member called head provided at the top. A window frame consists of two or more vertical members called jambs and two horizontal members provided at the top and bottom. The top horizontal member is called the head and the bottom horizontal member is called the sill.
2) Hold fast
It is generally made from mild steel. Hold fasts are provided on each side of the door and window frame. They keep the frame in position.
3) Horn
This is a horizontal projection of head or sill beyond the face of the frame. They keep the frame in position.
4) Rebate
The depression made inside the frame to receive the shutter is called Rebate.
5) Transom
It is the horizontal member used to divide a window frame.
6) Shutter
The entire assembly of styles, panels, and rails is known as shutter. Shutters are provided inside the door or window frame.
7) Style
Outside vertical members of a shutter are known as styles.
8) Top rail
The topmost horizontal member of the shutter is known as the top rail.
9) Bottom rail
The lowermost horizontal member of a shutter is known as the bottom rail.
10) Lock rail
This is the middle horizontal member of a shutter where a locking arrangement is provided.
11) Frieze rail
The rail which is provided between the top rail and lock rail is called the frieze rail.
12) Mullion or Munting
The vertical member running through a shutter and sub-dividing the shutter vertically is called mullion.
13) Panel
The area enclosed between the vertical styles and horizontal rails is known as panel.
14) Sash or glazing bar
It is a special type of frame made of light section and designed to carry glass fitted in a shutter.
15) Louver
It is an inclined piece of timber fixed within a frame. Louvers are provided in windows where vision is required to be prevented without affecting the ventilation system.
16) Putty
It is a mixture of white chalk and linseed oil. is used for fixing the glass panels.
Types of door
The common types of doors used in buildings are as follows:
1) Battened and ledged doors. 2) Battened, ledged and braced doors. 3) Battened, ledged and framed doors. 4) Battened, framed and braced doors. 5) Framed and panelled doors. 6) Glazed or sash doors. 7) Sliding doors. 8) Flush doors. 9) Collapsible doors. 10) Revolving doors. 11) Swing doors. 12) Rolling steel doors. 13) Louvered doors.
The common types of windows used in the building are as follows: 1) Casement or ordinary window. 2) Glazed or sash windows. 3) Louvered window. 4) Pivoted window. 5) Corner window. 6) Metal window. 7) Double-hung windows. 8) Gable windows. 9) Dormer window. 10) Bay window. 11) Clerestorey window. 12) Lanterns or lantern lights. 13) Sky light. 14) Sliding window. 15) Circular window.
Types Of Doors at Specific Locations And Their Uses
Following are the 11 types of doors and their uses.
Different Types Of Doors Used in Building And Their Uses
1) Battened and Ledged Doors
Battened and Ledged Door is the simplest type of door. These types of doors are mostly used where the strength of the door, as well as the appearance of the door, is not a vital factor. Economically it is very cheap as it requires fewer numbers of workers, and also there is no need to hire skilled workers. As the name suggests, it consists of wooden battens and ledges. Battens are the verticle boards or members, which are secured by horizontal members know as ledges.
Generally, there are three ledges, namely, lock ledges, middle ledges, and top ledges. Sometimes middle and bottom ledges are wider than top ledges. Battens are usually 10 cm to 15 cm wide and 20 mm to 30 mm thick. Ledges are usually 10cm to 20 cm wide and about 30 mm thick. Usually, the top ledge is kept 10 cm to 12 cm wide whereas the other two are made about 18 cm to 20 cm wide.
The length of the battens is cut as per the requirements of the door height. Door shutter is developed by joining series of battens by means of tongued and grooved joints and held together with the help of ledges. The shutter is hung either by iron T-hinges or cross garnets on the ledges.
2) Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors
This door is similar to the battened and ledged door except that additional diagonal members, called braces, are provided to increase its strength. Generally, the thickness of the braces are 20 to 30 mm. The wide of the braces are Usually 100 to 150 mm.
This type of door can be used for wider opening as compared to battened and ledged doors. These types of doors are widely used in bathrooms, water closets, and some situations where appearance is of secondary importance.
These are the most common types of doors and are widely used in private buildings.
5) Glazed or Sash Doors
These doors are extensively used in posh residential buildings as well as in public buildings.
6) Sliding Doors
The use of hinges to secure the shutters to the frame is completely eliminated by sliding doors. They are frequently used for godown, store, and garage entrances. They are moved using runners that are fixed horizontally at the top and bottom of the door. The lower end of the door slides between guides, preventing the door from moving too far to the side.
The door may slide sideways on one side or both sides, and it may have one or more leaves (or pieces). The runners are attached past the opening for a distance equal to the width of the panel so that when the door is opened, the door shutter stays on the runners at its new position parallel to the face of the wall and clear of the opening. When this door is open, neither does it block traffic nor does it take up any space in the room.
7) Collapsible Doors
These doors are mostly used for schools, sheds, godowns, compound gates etc.
8) Revolving Doors
The Revolving doors consist mainly of a centrally located mullion or pivot in a circular opening. The revolving shutters or leaves which are four or three in number are radially attached to the pivot.
Different Types Of Doors – #8. Revolving doors
The radiating shutters can be completely glazed, fully panelled or partially panelled. The shutters are enclosed in a vestibule. The rubbing ends or edges of the shutters are provided with rubber weathering strippings, which prevent a draught of air.
Simultaneously, these doors provide access to the entrance on one side and the exit on the other, and automatically, keeping the door closed when not in use.
The revolving doors are used in big hotels, banks, office buildings, and other such places where a continuous flow of pedestrian traffic is persistent.
9) Swing Doors
A swing door is such a type of door that can swing in both directions i.e it can be opened either inward or outward direction. This type of door is mainly provided in public buildings like offices, banks, police stations, big hotels, and public toilets. They are also used in residential buildings in the case of kitchen and dining rooms. It may be consists of single leave or double leave. You can easily understand what I am saying by seeing this picture.
Different Types Of Doors – #9. Swing Doors
When the door has to be opened, it has to be push lightly, When it is left from push it will automatically return in the closed position, due to the force of the spring hinges.
These types of doors may be made of wood, steel, or wood with a glass panel. It may create a risky situation If two persons try to open it from opposite directions at the same time.
10) Rolling Steel Doors
These types of doors are generally provided for garages, show roods, shops, godowns e.t.c.
11) Louvered doors
These doors may be provided in sanitary blocks of public buildings, residential buildings.
Louvered doors are also known as Venetian doors. In this type of doors, the shutters are provided with louvers, either fully or partly.
Louvered doors
Thin parallel lovers of timber, steel or glass are placed horizontally one above the other at such an inclination that the horizontal vision is obstructed. The louvers may be movable or fixed.
In the case of the louvered doors with fixed louvers, the upper back edge of any louver is kept higher than the lower front edge of the louver just above it. The louvers should always be kept sloping away from the inner side of the door so that rainwater may not enter through them.
In the case of the louvered doors with movable louvers, a verticle piece of timber is provided to which the louvers are attached through hinges. The louvers can be moved up or down with the help of the vertical piece of timber.
The louvered door allows free passage of air when closed and at the same time maintains privacy. They are used for sanitary blocks of public buildings, residential buildings, etc. The louvered doors should be periodically cleaned.
Plain brick masonry can not take any tensile stress. Reinforced brickwork can withstand tensile and shear stresses quite effectively. First-class bricks are used in this type of work. For embedding the reinforcement, dense cement mortar is used.
Reinforcement to be used in brick walls may consist of Simple iron bars or expanded metal mesh or in the form of hoop iron. The reinforcement may be placed either horizontally or vertically. Reinforced brickwork is adopted under the following circumstances:
1. When the brickwork has to resist tensile and shear stresses.
2. When a structure is to be constructed on soils of unequal bearing capacity.
3. For constructing brick beams/lintels over a large opening.
The treatment which is given to the building at the time of its construction to prevent the entry of damp into the building is known as damp-proofing.
Object/Necessity of damp proofing
Damp free condition is one of the basic requirements of all the building structures. Dampness makes a building unhabitable and structurally unsafe.
Thus, the object of providing a damp proofing course is to prevent the entry of damp into the building and thereby to make the building habitable and structurally safe, damp-proofing is necessary.
Materials Used For Damp Proofing
The following materials are commonly used for damp proofing:
1) Hot bitumen 2) Mastic asphalt 3) Bituminous felts 4) Metal sheets 5) Combination sheets and felts 6) Bricks 7) Stones 8) Mortar 9) Cement concrete 10) Plastic sheets.
The quantity of storm sewage (i.e. stormwater) is mainly affected by the following factors:
l) Shape And Size of The Catchment Ares
Stormwater(runoff )will be more for the large and fan-shaped catchment area. On the other hand, the runoff will be less for the small and ferm-shaped catchment areas.
2) Topography
Stormwater increases with the increase in the ground slope of the catchment area and vice versa.
3) Character of The Catchment Area
If the surface of the catchment area is rocky or compact clayey type, stormwater will be more. Again, if the surface of the catchment area is sandy, the stormwater will be low.
4) The direction of the prevailing storm
If the direction of the storm is the same as the direction of movement of water, the stormwater will be more and vice versa.
5) Type of Precipitation
If the precipitation occurs in the form of rain, it will produce stormwater immediately. On the other hand, if the precipitation occurs in the form of snow, it will produce stormwater at a slow rate.
6) Rainfall Distribution
The stormwater from a basin is very much dependent upon the rainfall distribution.
7) Intensity and Duration of Rainfall
The stormwater increases with the increase in the intensity of rainfall and vice versa. If the duration of rainfall is more, the stormwater will also be prolonged.
8) Soil moisture Deficiency
The runoff depends upon the soil moisture present at the time of the rainfall. If rain occurs after a long dry period, the soil will absorb huge amounts of water and thus runoff will be less. But the runoff will be more if rain occurs after a long rainy season.
9) Climatic Condition
If the temperature in the catchment area is high, the evaporation loss will be more and hence the stormwater will be less and vice versa.
10) Geological Condition of The Catchment
If the catchment area consists of fissures, cracks, etc, the water losses will be more and the stormwater will be low.
11) Vegetative Cover
The presence of a dense vegetative cover over soil increases the infiltration and thereby reduces the stormwater.
The quantity of sanitary sewage or D.W F is mainly affected by the following factors:
1) Rate of water supply
The quantity of sanitary sewage varies with the rate of water supply. The rate of water supply is not constant, but it fluctuates. These fluctuations may be seasonal, daily and hourly The rate of sewage is assumed as equal to the rate of water supply.
2) Population
The quantity of sanitary sewage directly depends on the population. As the population increases the quantity of sanitary sewage also increases and vice versa.
3) Type of area served
The quantity of sanitary sewage also depends on the type of area such as residential, industrial, or commercial.
4) Infiltration and exfiltration
The percolation of subsoil water in the sewer through the defective joints or cracks of the sewer is called infiltration.
The leakage of sewage from the sewer into the ground surrounding the sewer is called ex-filtration. Infiltration increases the quantity of sewage. On the other hand, ex-filtration decreases the quantity of sewage.
Sanitary sewage includes liquid wastes of domestic and industrial places.
Storm Sewage
Storm sewage includes surface runoff developed during and immediately after the rainfall over the concerned area.
Dry Weather Flow(D.W.F)
The sanitary sewage which flows in dry season is known as dry weather flow. It consists of two types of sewage: a) Domestic sewage. b) Industrial sewage.
The quantity of D.W.F depends upon the factors: a) Infiltration & ex-filtration. b) Nature of industries. c) Population. d) Rate of water supply.
Wet Weather Flow(W.W.F)
The combined flow of sanitary sewage and stormwater in the rainy season is known as wet weather flow.
Variation In Flow Of Sewage
The flow of sewage is directly related to the flow of water supply. As the water supply varies from hour to hour, day to day, month to month, and season to season. The flow of sewage also varies accordingly. The peak flow should be ascertained by different observations.
The building where pumps and other accessories are installed for lifting sewage is called a sewage pumping station.
Location of Sewage Pumping Station
The pumping station should preferably located near a natural disposal unit such as a stream, a river, etc. But at the same time, the site should be such that it is not liable to get flooded with river water or seepage from the ground.
Component Parts of Sewage Pumping Station
A typical sewage pumping station has the following major components:
1) Grit channel or Detritus pit. 2) Coarse and fine screens. 3) Sumps or Wet well. 4) Dry Well or Pump room. 5) Motor room. 6) Inlet and Rising main to an outlet. 7) Emergency overflow exit pipe. 8) Other accessories such as starters, valves, flow recorders, etc. installed in the motor room. 8) Ventilation arrangements.
