Sometimes, low lying areas or previously excavated areas are filled by dumping debris, refused and excavated soil. This type of fillup land is known as made-up ground or reclaimed ground. Such grounds have some unreliable and peculiar properties.
Foundation on Made-up Soil or Reclaimed Ground
It should be remembered that reclaimed grounds are not properly consolidated, and also the bearing capacity of such soil does not remain constant. So, before starting construction on such lands, their peculiar properties should be carefully considered. Otherwise, it may cause damage to the structure.
In founding structure on the made-up ground or reclaimed ground following precautions should be considered:
1. If small pockets are found on the reclaimed ground or made-up ground, they should be cleared and replaced with good-quality soil
2. If the load of the structure which is to be constructed on such lands is not too heavy, the raft foundation will be the best choice. But, if the load of the structure is too heavy and unevenly distributed, a pile foundation should be considered.
Raft Foundation is such a Foundation that covers the entire area under the structure. Raft foundation is also known as mat foundation because in this foundation RCC slab covers the entire area of the structure as Mat does. Before starting any construction, we need to understand what would be the best and most economical foundation method for a particular site.
When the heavy structure is to be built on soft soil, made-up ground, mining area or marshy sites, Raft or Mat foundation is considered to be the most suitable and economical method of foundation. This Foundation may have only RCC slab covering the entire area or it may be a system of slab and beams with slab at the bottom and beam above it.
The following are the main component parts of scaffolding:
1. Standards
Standards is a verticle member of scaffolding, which may be verticle bullies or pols or other vertically supported members. In the end, all the loads are carried by standards. So, they should be strong and rigid enough to bear them.
2. Ledgers
Ledgers are the horizontal members of scaffolding, which are laid parallel to the walls. Ledgers are fixed with standards either by ropes or by using other connectors. The connection between Ledgers and standards should be as possible as rigidly, otherwise, it may cause an accident due to loose connection between them.
3. Putlogs
Putlogs are also horizontal member, but it is positioned at the right angle to the wall and standards. One end of these members are laid on Ledgers, and the other end is held in the wall. This member acts as a connector between the wall and the scaffolding structure.
4. Braces
These are the members that are set diagonally on the standards to provide stiffness to the framework. These not only strengthen the scaffolding structure but also prevent oscillation of the structure.
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5. Planks or Boarding
Planks or boarding is a horizontal member made of wood, on which workers perform their particular work. For a particular work, all the required materials and appliances are kept over it. These members are laid parallel to the wall and supported on the putlogs.
Classification of Rocks – MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)
1. Hypabyssal is one type of ____
a) Igneous rock. b) Sedimentary rock. c) Metamorphic rock. d) Mineral.
View Answer
a) Igneous rock.
Hypabyssal is one type of igneous rocks.
2. One of the factors of Metamorphic rock is
a) Temperature. b) Magma. c) lava. d) Cleavage.
View Answer
a) Temperature.
3. Marble is a
a) Igneous rock. b) Sedimentary rock. c) Metamorphic rock. d) Mineral.
View Answer
c) Metamorphic rock.
Marble is a Metamorphic rock.
4. Plutonic rocks are always from the cooling of
a) The lava underwater. b) Magma just below the surface of the earth. c) Lava over the surface of the earth. d) Magma at great depths below the surface of the earth.
View Answer
d) Magma at great depths below the surface of the earth.
5. Granite is
a) A basic igneous rock. b) An intermediate igneous rock. c) An acid igneous rock. d) An ultrabasic igneous rock.
View Answer
b) An intermediate igneous rock.
Granite is an intermediate igneous rock.
6. Which one of the following is the igneous rock
a) Shale. b) Marble. c) Granite. d) Dolomite.
View Answer
c) Granite.
7. The hardest oxide mineral in the Mohs scale of hardness is
a) Corundum. b) Topaz. c) Quartz. d) Diamond.
View Answer
d) Diamond.
The hardest oxide mineral in Mohs scale of hardness is Diamond.
8. Which factors affect crystallization most?
a) Pressure. b) Temperature. c) Liquid with chemical fluid.
View Answer
b) Temperature.
9. Kankar is a variety of
a) Sandstone. b) Limestone. c) Shale. d) Coal.
View Answer
b) Limestone.
Kankar is a variety of Limestone.
10. The most dominant element in the whole earth is
a) Silicon. b) Nickel. c) Oxygen. d) Iron.
View Answer
d) Iron.
The most dominant element in the whole earth is Iron.
11. The simplest of all the silicate structure is that of
a) Orthosilicate. b) Sorosilicate. c) Metasilicate. d) Inosilicate.
General Rules of Earthquake-resistant Building Construction
Following are the general rules of earthquake-resistant building construction:
1. The foundation of the building should not be on loose soil, it must rest on a hard base of soil. Loose soil is more likely to settle easily during an earthquake and cause damage to the building.
2. Different components of the building should be connected in such a way that they behave as a single unit and thus presents the largest moment of inertia against earthquake forces.
3. As much possible as unnecessary extents should be avoided and balconies, canopies, etc. should be firmly tied with the key structure.
4. The suspended ceiling should be avoided. and the thickness of the ceiling plaster should be not more than 6 mm for R.C.C. work.
5. If a new part is to be added to the old house, it must be firmly joined to the old house. Because the joint section between the old and the new building is more likely to be damaged during an earthquake.
Ventilation is a very essential factor for any type of building. Ventilation plays a vital role in maintaining a healthy and comfortable indoor environment in buildings. Occupants cannot live healthily without proper ventilation. There are several factors that influence the effectiveness of ventilation systems, such as the rate of fresh air change, temperature, quality of air, etc.
The following factor should be considered, as they affect ventilation very much from a comfort point of view for the individual.
Rate of fresh air change
Temperature
Quality of air
Use of the Building
Factors Affecting Ventilation in Buildings
1. Rate of fresh air change
If the air movement does not occur in a room where some people are working, After some time the air of this room will be contaminated because of the respiration of the people working there.
If this air is not changed with fresh air, the concentration of carbon dioxide, other gases, and bacteria will increase, and the environment will be polluted which is not suitable for any person to work or stay there.
2. Temperature
It is obvious that the air needed for ventilation should be warm in the winter and cool in the summer. The temperature difference between the inside and outside of a building should be kept at around 8 to 10 degrees C.
The term effective temperature is used, with regard to human comfort. The value of effective temperature depends on several factors like geological conditions, age of the occupants, type of activity, size of the room, etc. The recommended value of effective temperature in winter is 21.7 degrees and in summer is 23.9 degrees.
3. Quality of air
The purity of air plays an important role in the ventilation system. The ventilating air should be free from organic matter, inorganic dust, objectionable gases, odor, etc.
4. Use of the Building
The rate or quantity of fresh air supply to a room depends upon the use of the building. The number of occupants, types of activity, period of working, etc. are the factors that are taken into consideration while recommending the minimum air supply. Following are the minimum and recommended rates of fresh air supply for different types of buildings.
A building’s design is an important aspect of building ventilation, as it directly affects the rate of airflow in the building. Factors like – the layout, arrangement, and size of windows, doors, and vents determine how much air will flow into the building.
6. Outdoor Air Quality
Indoor air quality directly depends on the outdoor air quality. Buildings located near sources of pollution or in areas with poor air quality may require advanced filtration or air purification systems.
1. The openings are provided with adjustable gates at the base of the weir and barrage is known as
a) Scouring sluices b) Under sluices c) Both (a) and (b) d) Silt excluder e) None of these
View Answer
c) Both (a) and (b)
2. What is the reason to provide silt excluder?
a) To allow heavy silt to enter the canal b) To prevent fine silt to enter the canal c) To allow the fine silt to enter the canal d) To prevent heavy silt to enter the canal
View Answer
d) To prevent heavy silt to enter the canal
3. What are the reasons behind providing dyke?
a) To protect valuable agricultural land of the surrounding area b) To prevent the town and village from adverse effects during the heavy flood. c) It prevents the water from entering the surrounding area d) All of these
View Answer
d) All of these
4. The top width of the marginal bank is usually kept as
a) 1 to 2 m b) 2 to 3 m c) 3 to 4 m d) None of these
View Answer
c) 3 to 4 m.
5. The marginal bank is also known as
a) Levees b) River bank c) Canal Bank d) Rigid Bank
View Answer
a) Levees.
6. The guide bank is also known as
a) Levees b) Rigid bank c) Marginal bunds d) Bell’s bund
View Answer
d) Bell’s bund
7. Which of following are the component part of the diversion headworks
a) Fish ladder b) Guide bank c) Silt excluder d) Divide wall e) All of these
View Answer
e) All of these
8. Which of the following is not a component part of the guide bank
a) Shank b) Sloping apron c) Launching apron d) Silt excluder e) None of these
View Answer
d) Silt excluder
9. The divide wall is a wall that is constructed at
a) Right angle to the weir b) Inclined angle to the weir c) Parallel to the weir d) None
a) To prevent overturning effect on the weir or barrage b) To controls the cross current in front of the canal head c) It provides a straight passageway in front of the canal head d) All of these
